Two Movements in Opposite Directions
When we look into the Bible and the Qur’an, we are bound to notice a clear opposition as regards the development of their teachings about the expansion of God’s kingdom. Put in simple terms, holy war in the Old Testament becomes spiritual warfare in the New Testament, whereas spiritual warfare in Mecca is subsumed under holy war in Medina.
Jesus
Until the time of Jesus, the Israelites lived under the covenant God made with the people of Israel through Moses. The Israelites were then under a theocratic government. All aspects of their lives were regulated by God’s law, which was comprehensive in scope (religious, social, moral, economic, political, etc.). Because of sin and the resulting danger of human beings wielding too much power, God did not want the three offices under the old covenant (king, prophet, and priest) to be united in one person. In other words, even though the regime was theocratic, authority was divided: Israel was required to respect a distinction among these offices (and a strict separation between king and priest) so as to minimize the danger of authoritarianism.
Through military conquest, or holy war, under the leadership of Moses and his successor Joshua, the Israelites took possession of the land God had promised their ancestors. The nation of Israel had its hour of glory during the reign of David, who was a prophet before he became a king and a military chief. His name is associated not only with the many psalms he composed but with the conquest of the city of Jerusalem, which he made the capital of his kingdom (1 Chronicles 11:4–9). The military career of David by no means reflected God’s perfect character. Because of the succession of wars that marked his reign, God refused to let David carry out his plan to build him a house, that is, a temple (1 Chronicles 28:3). God did not want the holiness of his house to be compromised by the violence that had sullied David’s life.
The coming of Jesus introduced a radical change in the way God’s kingdom is to be extended. The gospel is sometimes called “the gospel of the kingdom” (Matthew 4:23; 9:35; 24:14). Jesus points to the imminent coming of God’s kingdom, which is closely associated with faith in the gospel, the good news: “After John was put in prison, Jesus went into Galilee, proclaiming the good news of God. ‘The time has come,’ he said. ‘The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news!’” (Mark 1:14–15). The good news, the gospel, is all about the dawning of God’s saving kingdom among all people. It brings sinners into reconciliation with God; it brings healing, deliverance, justice, forgiveness, and reconciliation among human beings (Luke 4:16–27).
By his presence, teaching, actions, death, and resurrection, Jesus not only revealed God’s kingdom but put it into operation (Matthew 12:28). He insisted this kingdom would not be established with visible power and splendor (Luke 17:20–21; see especially the parables of the kingdom, Matthew 13). It is in no way spectacular, at least as long as the “end” has not taken place (Matthew 10:22; 24:6, 13–14). Jesus spoke of an end to history, an end inaugurated by his coming. At that point he comes to establish God’s kingdom “with power” (Mark 9:1). Moreover he calls this kingdom his kingdom (Matthew 16:28).
God’s kingdom, embodied in Jesus’ mission, has three main characteristics:
1. It is a spiritual kingdom, different from and above the political powers of this world. Jesus said that his kingdom was not of this world but of a heavenly one (John 18:36). On one occasion he had to slip away from the crowd when they were about to carry him off and make him king by force (John 6:15). The Jewish people, including some of Jesus’ own disciples, were very disappointed that he did not have on his agenda the liberation of Israel from Roman occupation (Luke 24:19–27; Acts 1:6–8). Jesus claimed political leadership neither for himself nor for his disciples. He did not want his authority to be identified with any particular political system or power: “Give back to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s” (Matthew 22:21).
2. It is a non-violent kingdom. Jesus never used force, let alone violence to overcome his enemies or to bring people into the kingdom. He wanted to convince people with the power of God’s Word, not with the sword. When he was arrested, he put up no resistance. To the great dismay of his disciples, he preferred to allow himself to be killed rather than resort to violence, even in self-defense (John 18:10–11). He pointed out the vicious circle of violence: “All who draw the sword will die by the sword” (Matthew 26:52). Nailed to a cross bearing the inscription “This is Jesus, the king of the Jews,” all that Jesus’ enemies heard from his lips was “Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing” (Luke 23:34). Thus, living in God’s kingdom means loving one’s enemies, and this precludes all forms of holy war, and still more personal vengeance: “You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven” (Matthew 5:43–45; cf. Romans 12:14).
3. It is a universal kingdom whose interests transcend national interests. Jesus refers to the time separating his first coming from his advent in glory and the full establishment of the kingdom of God as “the time of the Gentiles [or the nations]” (Luke 21:24). This time is the period allocated to all the nations of the earth to have access to salvation through the gospel (Romans 11:25–26). Jesus’ mission has indeed made God’s kingdom accessible to all nations (Acts 1:8).
The gospel is the main vehicle of extending God’s kingdom on earth. It focuses on God’s unchanging and redeeming love for humanity. The message of Jesus Christ, his life and his death and resurrection, encapsulate this love. The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead constitute the cornerstone of the Christian faith. Through his victory over sin and death, Jesus ushered humanity into a new and eternal life, a great and everlasting hope. The gospel calls people to acknowledge Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. A day is coming when everyone who has not believed in him as their king will have to submit to him as their Judge (Matthew 25:31–46; Acts 17:30–31; Philippians 2:9–11).
Muhammad
The Qur’an presents the Prophet Muhammad as a model for all believers (33:21), and the Hadith provides information about his life and teaching. The Qur’anic message centers on “Islam,” which means surrender, capitulation, and submission to God the Creator. Submission to God requires obedience to his law (shari’a). The word “islam” comes from the same root as “salam” (peace). Submitting to God brings peace between God and people. Historically it meant peace between Muslims and their polytheistic opponents (5:33–34).
For twelve years (610–22), the Prophet preached Islam to his unbelieving fellow citizens, the people of Mecca. This message provoked much hostility; only a few dozen responded positively. God told Muhammad to be patient (43:88–89) and lenient with his enemies: “The Hour is surely coming; therefore forgive them with gracious forgiveness” (15:85). The preaching of Muhammad was to be done peacefully: “Call men to the path of your Lord with wisdom and kindly exhortation; argue with them in the best possible way” (16:125). Muslims were also invited to deal with “the People of the Book” (that is, Jews and Christians) “in the best possible way” (29:46; cf. 3:64).
In 622, Muhammad made a critical decision that had far-reaching repercussions on his ministry. Faced with the opposition of his people in Mecca, he migrated with his companions to Medina. The number of Muslims grew rapidly. At the same time, conflict arose with the Jews of Medina. Together with the polytheistic Arabs of Mecca they were accused of conspiring against Muhammad. In this context the Prophet took on new responsibilities and became a political leader and an army commander. The content of the Qur’anic revelation also evolved. The “verse about the sword” (ayat as-sayf) was revealed, enjoining the Muslim community to fight against their enemies (9:5). “Holy War” (qital) was thus not only permitted but was made mandatory upon Muhammad and his followers according to a very well-known prophetic saying:
I have been commanded to wage war against men as long as they do not say, “There is no god but God.” As soon as they make this confession, I have no rights over their lives and possessions—unless they commit an offence against God’s law. They are accountable only to God.32
In AD 624, the struggle against the Jews of Medina reached a turning point, and they were all eradicated. In 630, the Muslim army triumphantly entered Mecca, having obtained the surrender of its leaders. This victory was immediately followed by the establishment of monotheistic worship in the temple of the Ka’aba. Many Arab tribes embraced the new religion, not always out of conviction (49:13). In the next few years, the number of Muslims increased greatly, gaining an ever-stronger influence throughout the region. Muslims were still committed to preaching Islam, but the preaching was now reinforced by force if necessary. “The People of the Book” were not forced to convert to Islam, but they had to submit to Islamic rule and pay a poll-tax (jizya; 9:29). In 632, Muhammad died, having been hailed by the majority of Arabs not only as a Prophet, but also as a great social reformer, an exceptionally charismatic politician, and a talented military leader.
God’s kingdom in Islam is a universal rule; the Prophet was sent to all peoples (3:20; 21:107). It is a rule of this world as much as of the next. The Muslim community is to obey God’s law as revealed during the second period of the Prophet’s mission in Medina. This means that Muslims are under obligation to resort to force if they come under attack or if they are prevented from preaching Islam. Jihad (literally “struggle”) is about a resolute and total commitment to the cause of God. In the event of God’s cause and the Muslim community being endangered, Muslims must take up arms and fight their enemies, even if they are reluctant to do battle (2:216; 4:77). Armed combat or holy war (qital) is therefore a legitimate form of jihad. A saying attributed to the Prophet has it that “the mujahid [fighter] is he who enters the fight against his own soul.”33 Thus jihad as spiritual warfare complements without contradicting or invalidating jihad as military expedition.
Islamic law ensures that God’s rule is being implemented in the Muslim community. Like the Jewish law, shari’a is an all-embracing law providing regulations for all aspects of human life (religious, social, economic, etc.), for individuals, and for the community. The law of retaliation given in the Torah (Leviticus 24:17–21) is in force in the shari’a too (5:45). Islamic penal code requires the death penalty in three cases: murder, apostasy and sexual immorality.34 It also prescribes physical punishments for certain offences: hand mutilation for theft (5:38) and flogging for wrongly accusing married Muslim woman of adultery (24:4–5) and for consuming alcohol.35
Holy War and the Gospel
Walking in the steps of their master, the disciples of Jesus took the gospel to the Jewish people and far beyond. Within one generation the gospel reached most Mediterranean countries and cities, including Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire. Christians never used force to support their preaching. For three centuries Christians lived as a religious minority and were sometimes persecuted. Following the conversion of Emperor Constantine, Christianity became the religion of the Empire. Christianity became the state religion, and in this context some Christian theologians developed the concept of “just war,” a concept that demands that several strict criteria be met before a war can be justified. Even in this context these theologians avoided using the expression “holy war,” and in general they saw “just war” to be the responsibility of government, not the church.
The collusion of Christianity and government in Christendom has sometimes led to religious persecution (against fellow Christians, Jews, and “heretical” Christians) and to religious wars against non-Christians (the crusades, for example). This religious violence dishonored Christ’s name. Christians today are ashamed of all sorts of violence done by their fellow Christians in different parts of the world throughout history (anti-Semitism, crusades, apartheid, ethnic cleansing, xenophobia). In many countries in the world, including western countries, the Christian community represents a religious minority, as was the case during the first centuries. This brings us back to the teaching of Jesus Christ and his disciples. The only holy war that is legitimate from a Christian perspective is spiritual warfare (Ephesians 6:10–17). In the Lord’s Prayer, Christians ask for God’s kingdom to come on earth as in heaven (Matthew 6:9–13). This amounts to pleading with God that many people will accept Jesus Christ as their heavenly king and that the kingdom values (God-centeredness, reconciliation to God, justice, peace, love, forgiveness, and truth) will grow in our world.
Jihad and Shari’a
The historic role of the Prophet in Islam exemplifies the global character of Islamic law. He was at the same time prophet, political leader, social reformer and military commander. Likewise, Islam has traditionally been understood as religion and government (din wa dawla) and as a religion for life in this world and in the next (din wa dunya).
By the time the Prophet died, all Arabia had come under Islamic rule. The first four caliphs, known as the rightly guided caliphs, took upon themselves the responsibility of spreading Islam as far as possible. To a large degree, they succeeded. Damascus fell to Muslims in 635, Jerusalem in 638, Egypt and Persia in 642, soon followed by North Africa, Spain in the west, and the Indian subcontinent in the east. In 732, exactly one hundred years after the Prophet’s death, the Muslim army experienced its first major defeat near Poitiers (center of France). By then Islam had taken control of vast territories, including territories traditionally regarded as Christian. Muslim scholars have seen in the rapid and spectacular Islamic conquests al-futuhat al-islamiyya, a clear sign of Islam’s divine origin.
Gradually but surely, Islamic law was implemented in the newly conquered territories. Christians (and Jews) found themselves living as second-class citizens in the Islamic Empire because of their dhimmi status.36 This status was meant to protect their lives and possessions as a religious minority, but it did not give them equality with Muslim citizens. In fact they often came under pressure and sometimes under open persecution. Many eventually converted to Islam. Shari’a law still represents the main source of legislation in numerous Islamic countries. This means that Christian communities still face serious forms of discrimination in these countries. 37